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Resources for Writers
From http://web.mit.edu/writing/Resources/Writers/index.html
1*.Understanding Writing Assignments
Before you can successfully select a topic, you must understand exactly what the assignment requires.
Types of writing assignments vary from department to department, from course to course, and from instructor to instructor, so it is important to understand thoroughly the requirements of a particular assignment.
If the topic is not provided by the instructor
Sometimes instructors leave the selection of meaningful topics or research questions up to you. In such cases, you can find a topic by doing the following:
Begin by asking yourself why you were interested in this particular course in the first place. Your interest in the course might provide a clue about what to investigate.
Look over class notes for provocative or interesting ideas.
Focus on points from the notes that you find interesting or puzzling.
Consider points about which the instructor has said "No one has adequately explained or explored X yet" or "It would be interesting to find out more about Y."
Consider the personal relevance this course might have for you.
Ask yourself if you can test or expand a model or concept studied in class.
Glance through books and journals in the area studied in class to find out what scholars are talking about and whether anything is missing from that scholarly conversation. If something is missing, that might be your topic.
Ask your instructor or TA for suggestions.
Explore some disagreement with a particular author or scholar in the field.
If the topic is provided by the instructor
If the assignment is explained but is not given to you in written form, remember that your instructors or TAs are the best source of information about their expectations for the assignment. In class or during office hours, ask questions and take notes about the key aspects of the assignment:
the paper's purpose
the intended audience for the essay
the amount of research required
length requirements
possible approaches
and the criteria used to grade your paper:
originality of thought
amount of research
use of concepts
style
If the assignment is written out for you on the syllabus or on an assignment sheet, the following procedure should help.
1. Read the assignment more than once.
Highlight or underline key assignment words such as
argue (agree/disagree)
criticize
define
describe
discuss
evaluate
explain
compare and contrast
reflect on
summarize
Such words tell you what kind of tasks your instructor expects you to perform.
Then highlight all other key technical terms that are course-specific or discipline-specific. Check these words in a good dictionary, even if you think you know what they mean. Some words have multiple meanings and special discipline-related meanings that you may not know.
2. Consider suggestions for topics given by the assignment itself.
Sometimes instructors structure topics or assignments to reflect one possible approach to the paper. Occasionally the assignment will tell you, directly or indirectly, what topics or aspects to consider and in what order. If your assignment does this, use the assignment to make a topic outline for your paper.
3. Consider which concepts or methods the assignment asks you to use.
Are you being asked to argue a point, to compare similarities and differences, or to explore your own reactions to an event, text, or idea? Does the topic ask you to go into depth about some material already covered? Does it ask you to evaluate a theory or model by applying it to a real-world example? Does it ask you to use research?
Essay assignments usually ask you to use the concepts, techniques, and ways of thinking that are featured in the course. Use these to ask yourself questions about the topics. Look also for controversies within the material studied.
4. Form a tentative thesis statement or central idea in the early stages of writing.
Having a thesis or hypothesis to support or prove will focus your thinking and help you say something significant. As you move through the writing process, you may discover that your thesis must be changed. That's not an unusual occurrence.
5. Devise your own topic, if that's allowed.
Some instructors are willing to let you create your own topic, rather than write on one of the suggested topics. If you have a topic you would like to explore, ask your instructor if you might substitute it for one of the suggested topics. If the instructor refuses your request, remember that there are probably several good pedagogical reasons for his/her wanting all the students working on the specific topics already assigned. Return to the steps above and select one of the topics that seems most promising to you. Remember, though, if you do suggest your own topic, make it at least as difficult and complex as the topic(s) suggested by the instructor.
Once you have analyzed the assignment, you are ready to begin the writing process.
If you want more advice about understanding an assignment, you might consider the following site:
Writing a Research Paper (Purdue University). Although this site focuses on writing a research paper, the advice given is useful for all sorts of essay writing assignments.
2*.The Writing Process
Writing is a process that involves at least four distinct steps: prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing. It is known as a recursive process. While you are revising, you might have to return to the prewriting step to develop and expand your ideas.
Prewriting
Prewriting is anything you do before you write a draft of your document. It includes thinking, taking notes, talking to others, brainstorming, outlining, and gathering information (e.g., interviewing people, researching in the library, assessing data).
Although prewriting is the first activity you engage in, generating ideas is an activity that occurs throughout the writing process.
Drafting
Drafting occurs when you put your ideas into sentences and paragraphs. Here you concentrate upon explaining and supporting your ideas fully. Here you also begin to connect your ideas. Regardless of how much thinking and planning you do, the process of putting your ideas in words changes them; often the very words you select evoke additional ideas or implications.
Don't pay attention to such things as spelling at this stage.
This draft tends to be writer-centered: it is you telling yourself what you know and think about the topic.
Revising
Revision is the key to effective documents. Here you think more deeply about your readers' needs and expectations. The document becomes reader-centered. How much support will each idea need to convince your readers? Which terms should be defined for these particular readers? Is your organization effective? Do readers need to know X before they can understand Y?
At this stage you also refine your prose, making each sentence as concise and accurate as possible. Make connections between ideas explicit and clear.
Editing
Check for such things as grammar, mechanics, and spelling. The last thing you should do before printing your document is to spell check it.
Don't edit your writing until the other steps in the writing process are complete.
3*.Introduction Strategies
Most topics lend themselves to a variety of introductory gambits. Suppose the assignment is to write a literary analysis of Vladimir Nabokov's novel Lolita. Below are several different ways to start that essay. Please note that not all introductions would be appropriate for one particular thesis or approach. Knowing some of the possible openings, however, often helps lead us to insights we didn't know we had.
Begin with a quotation
Although this approach can be overused, it can be very effective when you have an appropriate quotation. That quotation may relate directly to the subject or it may be only indirectly related (and thus require further explanation). Do not force a quotation into this spot; if an appropriate quotation is not available, select another method.
"The novel Lolita," the critic Charles Blight said in 1959, "is proof that American civilization is on the verge of total moral collapse" (45). The judgment of critics and readers in subsequent years, however, has proclaimed Lolita to be one of the great love stories of all time and one of the best proofs that American civilization is still vibrant and alive.
"Lolita, light of my life, fire of my loins. My sin, my soul" (11). These opening lines of Lolita reveal the essence of Humbert Humbert's complexity and compulsion, his saving grace and his damning passion.
Begin with a concession
Start with a statement recognizing an opinion or approach different from the one you plan to take in your essay.
Many critics have pointed to the unrelenting word games and puns throughout Lolita as proof that Vladimir Nabokov's major concern has always been language and art. Although these subjects certainly loom in all his works, a close examination of Lolita reveals that morality -- the way people treat each other -- is just as major a concern for him as language and art.
Begin with a paradox
In 1959 Vladimir Nabokov's novel Lolita had been banned in several cities as pornographic. Today it is required reading not only in literature courses but also in philosophy courses that explore the nature of love. Since its publication, the novel's subject has been recognized to be love, not lust; art, not perversion.
Begin with a short anecdote or narrative
When the original movie version of Lolita was released in the early 1960s, Sue Lyon, the young actress who starred as the provocative "nymphet" of the title, was judged too young to be allowed to see the movie in the theater.
Begin with an interesting fact or statistic
Joseph Conrad and Vladimir Nabokov -- two acknowledged masters of English prose -- were not even native speakers of English. Conrad's native tongue was Polish; Nabokov's, Russian.
Begin with a question or several questions that will be answered in the paper
How could a book now acknowledged as a masterpiece not only of fiction but also of English prose have been banned when it was published? How could a novel that dealt with love and art be thought of as pornographic? Why would a society so mindful of free speech as America ban any book in the first place?
Begin with relevant background material
Background material should be presented concisely and should be clearly related to your thesis. A rambling discussion of material only remotely related to your main point will confuse and bore your readers.
Although he was born in Russia and lived for many years in England, Germany, and France before coming to America in 1941, Vladimir Nabokov is now considered one of the great American novelists of the 20th century. This opinion, however, is not based solely on his mastery of English prose. His novel Lolita has been said to have captured the essence of American life in the 1950s better than any novel written by a writer born in this country.
Begin by stating a long-term effect or effects without immediately stating the cause
It caused howls of protest from the guardians of public morality in the 1950s. Indirectly it helped bring about both artistic and personal freedom in the 1960s. Today it is a recognized classic of art and thought -- Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita.
Begin with an analogy
Like a hurricane that brings fear and panic along with its powerful winds, uprooting trees and disrupting belief in an all-merciful God, so the novel Lolita swept across America in the 1950s, bringing fear and panic that pedophilia would be loosed on the land. Instead, the novel, like a hurricane, blew over trees of thought that were not deeply rooted in American experience, exposing their gnarled premises while helping to clear the way for the artistic freedom of the 1960s.
Begin with a definition of a term that is important to your essay
Avoid simple dictionary definitions. Create an expanded definition that explains how the term applies to your topic and essay.
Every few years the ugly charge of "pornography" is aimed at some novel or movie. Never was the term more inappropriately used than in the case of Lolita, yet the taint of that word still lingers in the minds of many when they hear the book's title. What exactly is "pornography" that it should stir such feelings and be so hated? The problem, of course, is that no one can agree on what pornography actually is. That it has something to do with sex seems clear; beyond that, there is a chaos of opinion. When the small-minded or special-interest definitions are pushed aside, however, we are left with D.H. Lawrence's provocative definition: pornography is anything that "does dirt on sex." By that definition, Lolita is the opposite of pornography -- it is a celebration of sex and love.
4*.Conclusion Strategies
In general, readers (or listeners) remember your Introduction and your Conclusion much longer than they remember the points developed in the Body of your essay (or speech). They remember the Introduction because that is what first caught their attention; they remember your Conclusion because that is the last thing they read (or heard).
Conclusions, then, are important. For most essays or speeches, an effective conclusion performs at least three functions:
1. It provides a summary of your major points (thus reinforcing them in your audience's memory).
2. It provides a sense of closure (the essay or speech feels as though it is finished). A reference to something from the Introduction often provides this sense of closure, giving a sense of things coming full circle.
3. It provides a "discovery" for the reader by making explicit some idea that has been implicit throughout the essay. This discovery might be the explicit connection between your major ideas, or it might an implication of your thesis that you have not yet discussed. In scientific and technical writing, it could even be a recommendation for future research or stating the questions that have not yet been answered by your document. Please note that this discovery should never be a completely new idea, for ending with a new topic prevents the sense of closure and makes the essay seem incomplete.
For every Introduction strategy, there is a corresponding Conclusion strategy. For instance, if you begin with a quotation, your Conclusion might refer back to that quotation, or might include another quotation by the same writer. If you begin with a concession, your Conclusion might explain why the point you conceded earlier is less significant than it might first have appeared to be. If you began with a paradox, your Conclusion might refer back to that par
5*.Forecasting
Forecasting Explanation -- Hamlet
A forecast gives your readers a mini "outline" of what is to come in the paper. It tells the readers two things: (1) the name of each of the major ideas in your paper and (2) the order in which those ideas will appear. Logically, the forecast is the last thing in your introduction. In relatively short papers, the forecast is often part of the thesis statement. One of the keys to a successful forecast is selecting a name (one or two words) for each major idea in your essay. These names are then listed as part of your forecast.
A continual forecast is part of the act of transition. Once you have finished discussing the first major idea, you begin the next section or paragraph by doing three things: (1) creating some form of transition (either a word or phrase or repetition of a key term), (2) state again the exact name of the major idea which you just finished discussing in the previous section, and (3) name the new idea that you will discuss in this section. One key to continual forecasting is using the exact same name for each major idea throughout the essay, particularly when you move from one idea to the next. The repetition of the exact same name helps readers see your organization and progress. With forecasts and continual forecasts, ignore the impulse to use synonyms for the names of your key ideas.
Example
Assume that you've been asked to write a paper on Shakespeare's Hamlet. Your prewriting might consist of the following list:
1. Hamlet is indecisive.
2. His mother remarries too soon after the death of Hamlet's father.
3. Hamlet kills Polonius on the "spur of the moment."
4. Ophelia goes insane.
5. This is Shakespeare's longest tragedy.
6. Claudius is king.
7. Hamlet questions everything.
8. Laertes is a foil to Hamlet.
9. Claudius is also Gertrude's brother-in-law.
10. Laertes takes fast action to avenge his father's death.
11. Hamlet might have a psychological problem.
12. Claudius becomes a substitute father for Hamlet.
13. Hamlet kills Claudius on the spur of the moment.
14. Would Hamlet have acted if Laertes and Claudius hadn't forced the issue?
15. Claudius supposedly murdered Hamlet's father.
16. Hamlet is not sure he can trust the word of a ghost.
Using some of the items from the above list, we might create the following categories (names of the main ideas) : (1) Hamlet's indecision; (2) Hamlet's hasty actions; (3) Claudius's guilt; (4) Laertes as foil.
Narrowing our topic to Hamlet's personality (since we seem to have the most information on that -- 3 categories -- and because it's the issue that most interests us). A tentative thesis statement is your best guess about what the main point of your essay will be before you have written the first draft. A typical tentative thesis statement tends to be a simple sentence, relatively short, and its content tends to be general rather than very specific. For instance, we might write one of the following tentative thesis statements:
1."Hamlet is a complex person."
2. "Hamlet's personality includes indecision and hasty action."
After writing the first draft, we look it over and create a DEVELOPED THESIS STATEMENT. A developed thesis statement is created after you have seen what you have written in a draft. A typical developed thesis statement tend to be a compound or complex sentence, relatively long, and its content tends to be very specific. For instance, we might write one of the following DEVELOPED THESIS STATEMENTS:
3. "Hamlet's personality has three crucial elements -- his indecision, his hasty actions, and his Oedipal complex."
4. "Hamlet's personality has three crucial elements -- his hasty actions, his Oedipal complex, and his indecision."
5. "Because of his Oedipal complex, Hamlet is often indecisive and becomes decisive only when events force him into hasty actions."
6. "Although Hamlet seems to be inconsistent because he delays and then suddenly acts hastily, the apparent inconsistency is revealed as actual consistency when we understand that he suffers from an Oedipal complex."
In a developed thesis statement, the main ideas are named in the order in which we intend to discuss them. Hence the difference between #3 and #4 is this: in #3, Hamlet's indecision is the least important idea (and hence will be discussed first in the essay), his hasty actions are the next most important idea (and hence will be discussed second), and his Oedipal complex is the most important idea (and hence will be discussed third).. In #4, however, his hasty actions are the least important idea, his Oedipal complex is the next most important idea, and his indecision is the most important idea. In #5, the "Because" clause at the beginning of the sentence signals that the Oedipal complex is the cause of the other two traits and thus is the most important. Hamlet's indecision is the least important, and his hasty actions are the next most important. In other words, the forecast functions as a mini-outline of the essay. This fact helps the writer stay on track and it helps readers understand the development of your ideas and of your essay.
Note that in a typical English sentence structure (subject + verb+ everything else), the most important idea is often listed last in the forecast and is discussed last in the essay. When we vary the sentence structure, however, as when we use the dependent "Because" clause at the beginning of sentence #5, importance can be signaled by the choice of words. Yet the "Although" clause that begins #6 indicates that the delaying is least important, the hasty acts are next most important, and the Oedipal complex is the most important.
Our introduction might be the following:
"One of the most puzzling elements of William Shakespeare's Hamlet has been the personality of Hamlet himself. Although he receives supernatural assurance that his uncle Claudius has murdered his father, and although he can see with his own eyes that Claudius has hastened to marry his own sister-in-law (Hamlet's mother), Hamlet still seems incapable of deciding what to do. Should he leave Denmark and resume his studies? Should he take the place as heir apparent that Claudius offers? Should he kill Claudius? When we focus on the personality of Hamlet itself, at least part of the puzzle is solved. Even though Hamlet was written long before Freud was born, Shakespeare has given us an accurate portrait of a man paralyzed by Oedipal guilt. In short, Hamlet's personality has three crucial elements -- his indecision, his hasty actions, and his Oedipal complex. [Note two things here: first, that, as often happens, the thesis and forecast are one sentence; second, that the thesis/forecast is the last sentence in the introduction]
[This is the first sentence of the 2nd paragraph or the 2nd section] Evidence of Hamlet's indecision abounds in the play.
(Then follows one or more paragraphs to complete the 2nd section with examples and discussion).
[This is the first sentence of the 3rd section] Whenever Hamlet overcomes his indecision, the results are hasty actions which complicate rather than resolve his problem.
(Then follows one or more paragraphs giving examples of his hasty actions and developing the implications of his hasty actions).
[This is the first sentence of the 4th section] To understand Hamlet's indecision and hasty actions, we must finally come to see that he suffers from a profound Oedipal complex.
(Then follows one or more paragraphs explaining and illustrating the implications of the Oedipal complex).
[This is the first sentence of the conclusion] Understanding the sources of Hamlet's indecision and hasty actions to be an Oedipal complex, then, helps solve some of the puzzling aspects of Hamlet.
Some writers do the reverse -- they first create the categories (the names for their major ideas) and then find examples and explanations to flesh out those categories. Either approach is fine.
Notice, finally, that using continual forecasting creates explicit connections between ideas, connections that help readers understand your points.
Note: To the best of my knowledge, the concept forecasting was developed by Albert VanNostrand and others at Brown University and was popularized in the now out-of-print Functional Writing.
6*.Grammar
There are many useful online guides to grammar. Here are some good ones:
"Guide to Grammar and Style" -- Source: Rutgers University :http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/
"Grammar, Punctuation, and Spelling" -- Source: Purdue University : http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/index.html
"Online Grammar Guides" -- Source: George Mason University :http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/esl/gram_punct.html
"Grammar Guides" -- Source: Colorado State University :
"Stunk and White's Elements of Style" -- Source: Bartleby.com :http://writing.colostate.edu/links/index.cfm?category=writer&subcategory=GrammarGuides
EnglishClub.com--English Club : http://grammar.englishclub.com/index.html
7*.ESL Resources for Students
http://writingcenters.org/writers.htm : ESL Resources site at the International Writing Centers Association page is a good starting place
http://a4esl.org/ : Activities for ESL Students offers a myriad of activities for improving use of the English language
http://www.goenglish.com/EveryCloudHasASilverLining.asp : GoEnglish teaches the meanings of idioms
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/6720/ : The Idiom Connection provides meanings of idioms and quizzes
http://www.pacificnet.net/~sperling/eslcafe.html : Dave's ESL Cafe offers chat rooms and exchanges of information
http://iteslj.org/quizzes/ : Self-Study Quizzes for ESL students
http://iteslj.org/ : The Internet TESL Journal
1*.Understanding Writing Assignments
Before you can successfully select a topic, you must understand exactly what the assignment requires.
Types of writing assignments vary from department to department, from course to course, and from instructor to instructor, so it is important to understand thoroughly the requirements of a particular assignment.
If the topic is not provided by the instructor
Sometimes instructors leave the selection of meaningful topics or research questions up to you. In such cases, you can find a topic by doing the following:
Begin by asking yourself why you were interested in this particular course in the first place. Your interest in the course might provide a clue about what to investigate.
Look over class notes for provocative or interesting ideas.
Focus on points from the notes that you find interesting or puzzling.
Consider points about which the instructor has said "No one has adequately explained or explored X yet" or "It would be interesting to find out more about Y."
Consider the personal relevance this course might have for you.
Ask yourself if you can test or expand a model or concept studied in class.
Glance through books and journals in the area studied in class to find out what scholars are talking about and whether anything is missing from that scholarly conversation. If something is missing, that might be your topic.
Ask your instructor or TA for suggestions.
Explore some disagreement with a particular author or scholar in the field.
If the topic is provided by the instructor
If the assignment is explained but is not given to you in written form, remember that your instructors or TAs are the best source of information about their expectations for the assignment. In class or during office hours, ask questions and take notes about the key aspects of the assignment:
the paper's purpose
the intended audience for the essay
the amount of research required
length requirements
possible approaches
and the criteria used to grade your paper:
originality of thought
amount of research
use of concepts
style
If the assignment is written out for you on the syllabus or on an assignment sheet, the following procedure should help.
1. Read the assignment more than once.
Highlight or underline key assignment words such as
argue (agree/disagree)
criticize
define
describe
discuss
evaluate
explain
compare and contrast
reflect on
summarize
Such words tell you what kind of tasks your instructor expects you to perform.
Then highlight all other key technical terms that are course-specific or discipline-specific. Check these words in a good dictionary, even if you think you know what they mean. Some words have multiple meanings and special discipline-related meanings that you may not know.
2. Consider suggestions for topics given by the assignment itself.
Sometimes instructors structure topics or assignments to reflect one possible approach to the paper. Occasionally the assignment will tell you, directly or indirectly, what topics or aspects to consider and in what order. If your assignment does this, use the assignment to make a topic outline for your paper.
3. Consider which concepts or methods the assignment asks you to use.
Are you being asked to argue a point, to compare similarities and differences, or to explore your own reactions to an event, text, or idea? Does the topic ask you to go into depth about some material already covered? Does it ask you to evaluate a theory or model by applying it to a real-world example? Does it ask you to use research?
Essay assignments usually ask you to use the concepts, techniques, and ways of thinking that are featured in the course. Use these to ask yourself questions about the topics. Look also for controversies within the material studied.
4. Form a tentative thesis statement or central idea in the early stages of writing.
Having a thesis or hypothesis to support or prove will focus your thinking and help you say something significant. As you move through the writing process, you may discover that your thesis must be changed. That's not an unusual occurrence.
5. Devise your own topic, if that's allowed.
Some instructors are willing to let you create your own topic, rather than write on one of the suggested topics. If you have a topic you would like to explore, ask your instructor if you might substitute it for one of the suggested topics. If the instructor refuses your request, remember that there are probably several good pedagogical reasons for his/her wanting all the students working on the specific topics already assigned. Return to the steps above and select one of the topics that seems most promising to you. Remember, though, if you do suggest your own topic, make it at least as difficult and complex as the topic(s) suggested by the instructor.
Once you have analyzed the assignment, you are ready to begin the writing process.
If you want more advice about understanding an assignment, you might consider the following site:
Writing a Research Paper (Purdue University). Although this site focuses on writing a research paper, the advice given is useful for all sorts of essay writing assignments.
2*.The Writing Process
Writing is a process that involves at least four distinct steps: prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing. It is known as a recursive process. While you are revising, you might have to return to the prewriting step to develop and expand your ideas.
Prewriting
Prewriting is anything you do before you write a draft of your document. It includes thinking, taking notes, talking to others, brainstorming, outlining, and gathering information (e.g., interviewing people, researching in the library, assessing data).
Although prewriting is the first activity you engage in, generating ideas is an activity that occurs throughout the writing process.
Drafting
Drafting occurs when you put your ideas into sentences and paragraphs. Here you concentrate upon explaining and supporting your ideas fully. Here you also begin to connect your ideas. Regardless of how much thinking and planning you do, the process of putting your ideas in words changes them; often the very words you select evoke additional ideas or implications.
Don't pay attention to such things as spelling at this stage.
This draft tends to be writer-centered: it is you telling yourself what you know and think about the topic.
Revising
Revision is the key to effective documents. Here you think more deeply about your readers' needs and expectations. The document becomes reader-centered. How much support will each idea need to convince your readers? Which terms should be defined for these particular readers? Is your organization effective? Do readers need to know X before they can understand Y?
At this stage you also refine your prose, making each sentence as concise and accurate as possible. Make connections between ideas explicit and clear.
Editing
Check for such things as grammar, mechanics, and spelling. The last thing you should do before printing your document is to spell check it.
Don't edit your writing until the other steps in the writing process are complete.
3*.Introduction Strategies
Most topics lend themselves to a variety of introductory gambits. Suppose the assignment is to write a literary analysis of Vladimir Nabokov's novel Lolita. Below are several different ways to start that essay. Please note that not all introductions would be appropriate for one particular thesis or approach. Knowing some of the possible openings, however, often helps lead us to insights we didn't know we had.
Begin with a quotation
Although this approach can be overused, it can be very effective when you have an appropriate quotation. That quotation may relate directly to the subject or it may be only indirectly related (and thus require further explanation). Do not force a quotation into this spot; if an appropriate quotation is not available, select another method.
"The novel Lolita," the critic Charles Blight said in 1959, "is proof that American civilization is on the verge of total moral collapse" (45). The judgment of critics and readers in subsequent years, however, has proclaimed Lolita to be one of the great love stories of all time and one of the best proofs that American civilization is still vibrant and alive.
"Lolita, light of my life, fire of my loins. My sin, my soul" (11). These opening lines of Lolita reveal the essence of Humbert Humbert's complexity and compulsion, his saving grace and his damning passion.
Begin with a concession
Start with a statement recognizing an opinion or approach different from the one you plan to take in your essay.
Many critics have pointed to the unrelenting word games and puns throughout Lolita as proof that Vladimir Nabokov's major concern has always been language and art. Although these subjects certainly loom in all his works, a close examination of Lolita reveals that morality -- the way people treat each other -- is just as major a concern for him as language and art.
Begin with a paradox
In 1959 Vladimir Nabokov's novel Lolita had been banned in several cities as pornographic. Today it is required reading not only in literature courses but also in philosophy courses that explore the nature of love. Since its publication, the novel's subject has been recognized to be love, not lust; art, not perversion.
Begin with a short anecdote or narrative
When the original movie version of Lolita was released in the early 1960s, Sue Lyon, the young actress who starred as the provocative "nymphet" of the title, was judged too young to be allowed to see the movie in the theater.
Begin with an interesting fact or statistic
Joseph Conrad and Vladimir Nabokov -- two acknowledged masters of English prose -- were not even native speakers of English. Conrad's native tongue was Polish; Nabokov's, Russian.
Begin with a question or several questions that will be answered in the paper
How could a book now acknowledged as a masterpiece not only of fiction but also of English prose have been banned when it was published? How could a novel that dealt with love and art be thought of as pornographic? Why would a society so mindful of free speech as America ban any book in the first place?
Begin with relevant background material
Background material should be presented concisely and should be clearly related to your thesis. A rambling discussion of material only remotely related to your main point will confuse and bore your readers.
Although he was born in Russia and lived for many years in England, Germany, and France before coming to America in 1941, Vladimir Nabokov is now considered one of the great American novelists of the 20th century. This opinion, however, is not based solely on his mastery of English prose. His novel Lolita has been said to have captured the essence of American life in the 1950s better than any novel written by a writer born in this country.
Begin by stating a long-term effect or effects without immediately stating the cause
It caused howls of protest from the guardians of public morality in the 1950s. Indirectly it helped bring about both artistic and personal freedom in the 1960s. Today it is a recognized classic of art and thought -- Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita.
Begin with an analogy
Like a hurricane that brings fear and panic along with its powerful winds, uprooting trees and disrupting belief in an all-merciful God, so the novel Lolita swept across America in the 1950s, bringing fear and panic that pedophilia would be loosed on the land. Instead, the novel, like a hurricane, blew over trees of thought that were not deeply rooted in American experience, exposing their gnarled premises while helping to clear the way for the artistic freedom of the 1960s.
Begin with a definition of a term that is important to your essay
Avoid simple dictionary definitions. Create an expanded definition that explains how the term applies to your topic and essay.
Every few years the ugly charge of "pornography" is aimed at some novel or movie. Never was the term more inappropriately used than in the case of Lolita, yet the taint of that word still lingers in the minds of many when they hear the book's title. What exactly is "pornography" that it should stir such feelings and be so hated? The problem, of course, is that no one can agree on what pornography actually is. That it has something to do with sex seems clear; beyond that, there is a chaos of opinion. When the small-minded or special-interest definitions are pushed aside, however, we are left with D.H. Lawrence's provocative definition: pornography is anything that "does dirt on sex." By that definition, Lolita is the opposite of pornography -- it is a celebration of sex and love.
4*.Conclusion Strategies
In general, readers (or listeners) remember your Introduction and your Conclusion much longer than they remember the points developed in the Body of your essay (or speech). They remember the Introduction because that is what first caught their attention; they remember your Conclusion because that is the last thing they read (or heard).
Conclusions, then, are important. For most essays or speeches, an effective conclusion performs at least three functions:
1. It provides a summary of your major points (thus reinforcing them in your audience's memory).
2. It provides a sense of closure (the essay or speech feels as though it is finished). A reference to something from the Introduction often provides this sense of closure, giving a sense of things coming full circle.
3. It provides a "discovery" for the reader by making explicit some idea that has been implicit throughout the essay. This discovery might be the explicit connection between your major ideas, or it might an implication of your thesis that you have not yet discussed. In scientific and technical writing, it could even be a recommendation for future research or stating the questions that have not yet been answered by your document. Please note that this discovery should never be a completely new idea, for ending with a new topic prevents the sense of closure and makes the essay seem incomplete.
For every Introduction strategy, there is a corresponding Conclusion strategy. For instance, if you begin with a quotation, your Conclusion might refer back to that quotation, or might include another quotation by the same writer. If you begin with a concession, your Conclusion might explain why the point you conceded earlier is less significant than it might first have appeared to be. If you began with a paradox, your Conclusion might refer back to that par
5*.Forecasting
Forecasting Explanation -- Hamlet
A forecast gives your readers a mini "outline" of what is to come in the paper. It tells the readers two things: (1) the name of each of the major ideas in your paper and (2) the order in which those ideas will appear. Logically, the forecast is the last thing in your introduction. In relatively short papers, the forecast is often part of the thesis statement. One of the keys to a successful forecast is selecting a name (one or two words) for each major idea in your essay. These names are then listed as part of your forecast.
A continual forecast is part of the act of transition. Once you have finished discussing the first major idea, you begin the next section or paragraph by doing three things: (1) creating some form of transition (either a word or phrase or repetition of a key term), (2) state again the exact name of the major idea which you just finished discussing in the previous section, and (3) name the new idea that you will discuss in this section. One key to continual forecasting is using the exact same name for each major idea throughout the essay, particularly when you move from one idea to the next. The repetition of the exact same name helps readers see your organization and progress. With forecasts and continual forecasts, ignore the impulse to use synonyms for the names of your key ideas.
Example
Assume that you've been asked to write a paper on Shakespeare's Hamlet. Your prewriting might consist of the following list:
1. Hamlet is indecisive.
2. His mother remarries too soon after the death of Hamlet's father.
3. Hamlet kills Polonius on the "spur of the moment."
4. Ophelia goes insane.
5. This is Shakespeare's longest tragedy.
6. Claudius is king.
7. Hamlet questions everything.
8. Laertes is a foil to Hamlet.
9. Claudius is also Gertrude's brother-in-law.
10. Laertes takes fast action to avenge his father's death.
11. Hamlet might have a psychological problem.
12. Claudius becomes a substitute father for Hamlet.
13. Hamlet kills Claudius on the spur of the moment.
14. Would Hamlet have acted if Laertes and Claudius hadn't forced the issue?
15. Claudius supposedly murdered Hamlet's father.
16. Hamlet is not sure he can trust the word of a ghost.
Using some of the items from the above list, we might create the following categories (names of the main ideas) : (1) Hamlet's indecision; (2) Hamlet's hasty actions; (3) Claudius's guilt; (4) Laertes as foil.
Narrowing our topic to Hamlet's personality (since we seem to have the most information on that -- 3 categories -- and because it's the issue that most interests us). A tentative thesis statement is your best guess about what the main point of your essay will be before you have written the first draft. A typical tentative thesis statement tends to be a simple sentence, relatively short, and its content tends to be general rather than very specific. For instance, we might write one of the following tentative thesis statements:
1."Hamlet is a complex person."
2. "Hamlet's personality includes indecision and hasty action."
After writing the first draft, we look it over and create a DEVELOPED THESIS STATEMENT. A developed thesis statement is created after you have seen what you have written in a draft. A typical developed thesis statement tend to be a compound or complex sentence, relatively long, and its content tends to be very specific. For instance, we might write one of the following DEVELOPED THESIS STATEMENTS:
3. "Hamlet's personality has three crucial elements -- his indecision, his hasty actions, and his Oedipal complex."
4. "Hamlet's personality has three crucial elements -- his hasty actions, his Oedipal complex, and his indecision."
5. "Because of his Oedipal complex, Hamlet is often indecisive and becomes decisive only when events force him into hasty actions."
6. "Although Hamlet seems to be inconsistent because he delays and then suddenly acts hastily, the apparent inconsistency is revealed as actual consistency when we understand that he suffers from an Oedipal complex."
In a developed thesis statement, the main ideas are named in the order in which we intend to discuss them. Hence the difference between #3 and #4 is this: in #3, Hamlet's indecision is the least important idea (and hence will be discussed first in the essay), his hasty actions are the next most important idea (and hence will be discussed second), and his Oedipal complex is the most important idea (and hence will be discussed third).. In #4, however, his hasty actions are the least important idea, his Oedipal complex is the next most important idea, and his indecision is the most important idea. In #5, the "Because" clause at the beginning of the sentence signals that the Oedipal complex is the cause of the other two traits and thus is the most important. Hamlet's indecision is the least important, and his hasty actions are the next most important. In other words, the forecast functions as a mini-outline of the essay. This fact helps the writer stay on track and it helps readers understand the development of your ideas and of your essay.
Note that in a typical English sentence structure (subject + verb+ everything else), the most important idea is often listed last in the forecast and is discussed last in the essay. When we vary the sentence structure, however, as when we use the dependent "Because" clause at the beginning of sentence #5, importance can be signaled by the choice of words. Yet the "Although" clause that begins #6 indicates that the delaying is least important, the hasty acts are next most important, and the Oedipal complex is the most important.
Our introduction might be the following:
"One of the most puzzling elements of William Shakespeare's Hamlet has been the personality of Hamlet himself. Although he receives supernatural assurance that his uncle Claudius has murdered his father, and although he can see with his own eyes that Claudius has hastened to marry his own sister-in-law (Hamlet's mother), Hamlet still seems incapable of deciding what to do. Should he leave Denmark and resume his studies? Should he take the place as heir apparent that Claudius offers? Should he kill Claudius? When we focus on the personality of Hamlet itself, at least part of the puzzle is solved. Even though Hamlet was written long before Freud was born, Shakespeare has given us an accurate portrait of a man paralyzed by Oedipal guilt. In short, Hamlet's personality has three crucial elements -- his indecision, his hasty actions, and his Oedipal complex. [Note two things here: first, that, as often happens, the thesis and forecast are one sentence; second, that the thesis/forecast is the last sentence in the introduction]
[This is the first sentence of the 2nd paragraph or the 2nd section] Evidence of Hamlet's indecision abounds in the play.
(Then follows one or more paragraphs to complete the 2nd section with examples and discussion).
[This is the first sentence of the 3rd section] Whenever Hamlet overcomes his indecision, the results are hasty actions which complicate rather than resolve his problem.
(Then follows one or more paragraphs giving examples of his hasty actions and developing the implications of his hasty actions).
[This is the first sentence of the 4th section] To understand Hamlet's indecision and hasty actions, we must finally come to see that he suffers from a profound Oedipal complex.
(Then follows one or more paragraphs explaining and illustrating the implications of the Oedipal complex).
[This is the first sentence of the conclusion] Understanding the sources of Hamlet's indecision and hasty actions to be an Oedipal complex, then, helps solve some of the puzzling aspects of Hamlet.
Some writers do the reverse -- they first create the categories (the names for their major ideas) and then find examples and explanations to flesh out those categories. Either approach is fine.
Notice, finally, that using continual forecasting creates explicit connections between ideas, connections that help readers understand your points.
Note: To the best of my knowledge, the concept forecasting was developed by Albert VanNostrand and others at Brown University and was popularized in the now out-of-print Functional Writing.
6*.Grammar
There are many useful online guides to grammar. Here are some good ones:
"Guide to Grammar and Style" -- Source: Rutgers University :http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/
"Grammar, Punctuation, and Spelling" -- Source: Purdue University : http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/index.html
"Online Grammar Guides" -- Source: George Mason University :http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/esl/gram_punct.html
"Grammar Guides" -- Source: Colorado State University :
"Stunk and White's Elements of Style" -- Source: Bartleby.com :http://writing.colostate.edu/links/index.cfm?category=writer&subcategory=GrammarGuides
EnglishClub.com--English Club : http://grammar.englishclub.com/index.html
7*.ESL Resources for Students
http://writingcenters.org/writers.htm : ESL Resources site at the International Writing Centers Association page is a good starting place
http://a4esl.org/ : Activities for ESL Students offers a myriad of activities for improving use of the English language
http://www.goenglish.com/EveryCloudHasASilverLining.asp : GoEnglish teaches the meanings of idioms
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/6720/ : The Idiom Connection provides meanings of idioms and quizzes
http://www.pacificnet.net/~sperling/eslcafe.html : Dave's ESL Cafe offers chat rooms and exchanges of information
http://iteslj.org/quizzes/ : Self-Study Quizzes for ESL students
http://iteslj.org/ : The Internet TESL Journal
Some other good resources for writing
Writing a Research Paper
From http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/types.html
còn nhiều link hay từ trang này,nên xem thêm
Genre
The two main types: to analyze or to argue? That is the question.
Regardless of the type of research paper you're writing, we hope the previous discussion of what a research paper is has established that your finished paper should be a presentation of your own thinking backed up by the ideas or information of others in the field. However, whether your paper is ANALYTICAL (uses evidence to analyze facets of an issue) or ARGUMENTATIVE (uses evidence to attempt to convince the reader of your particular stance on a debatable topic), is definitely going to have a bearing on your strategy from here on in. In fact, it will determine your paper's purpose. So here's a more thorough discussion of the difference between the two types, followed by a concrete example that directly compares the two.
1) Analytical Papers
As the staff at the SUNY Empire State College Writer's Complex so aptly explains it: "To analyze means to break a topic or concept down into its parts in order to inspect and understand it, and to restructure those parts in a way that makes sense to you. In an analytical research paper, you do research to become an expert on a topic so that you can restructure and present the parts of the topic from your own perspective." 1
In this brand of research paper, therefore, you go into the researching stage with a specific topic about which you have not made any kind of conclusions. Often you will hear this called your research question. Your task is to survey the information and views already out there--both before and once you become familiar with the topic. That will require critical thinking and reading, plus evaluation of the resources you handle. By the end of the paper you will be able to contribute your own thoughts to the academic discussion by drawing some conclusions about the topic you have just analyzed.
Your task is to survey the information and views already out there--both before and once you become familiar with the topic. That will require critical thinking and reading, plus evaluation of the resources.
What exactly does critical thinking mean though?
A term thrown around at the post-secondary level, "critical thinking" is a broad concept that encompasses a lot about college or university academic expectations. But for our purposes it's enough to say that in a research or reading context it means not considering any view as "truth" simply because a source has been published or seems to be an expert. It requires you to maintain some objectivity and ask questions to yourself as you read (or watch or listen). This slight air of initial skepticism urges the resource to convince you of its authority. In short, a critical eye teaches you to regard anything-- especially if it's published or in other media-- as if you're doing a peer edit or with the attitude your own professor will be adopting while marking your paper. No matter what your knowledge level, as a student with fresh eyes and unique experiences, you always have inquisitiveness as a skill; this is how students enter a research community with some authority of their own.
For more guidelines about what critical thinking and reading actually are, visit:
Thinking Critically from the University of Victoria Learning Skills Program page
Critical Reading from the University of Saskatchewan's "U-Study" Library Instruction Guide
2) Argumentative (or Persuasive) Papers
In addition to the concept of critical thinking (which any paper at the university level will demand of you), another widely-used term at the college level which you may or may not be familiar with in its academic context, is the term argument. This is the basis of the persuasive kind of research paper.
The Student Services staff at Charles Sturt University in Australia defines an argument as "a series of generalizations or propositions, supported by evidence or reasoning and connected in a logical manner, that lead to a justified conclusion. You must sustain your argument by giving evidence and reasons."
In direct contrast to the analytical paper, your approach here is to take a stand on an issue and use evidence to back-up your stance, not to explore or flesh out an unresolved topic. We have included an entire step just on this aspect of the research paper writing process, but it's probably worth your while now to know that this stance, this debatable statement or interpretation is known as your thesis.
In direct contrast to the analytical paper, your approach here is to take a stand on an issue and use evidence to back-up your stance, not to explore or flesh out an unresolved topic.
Argumentative or persuasive papers, as these names suggest, are attempts--after all, essay does come from the French word essai, or "attempt"--to convince the reader of a debatable or controversial point of view.
That point of view--your thesis--and not some research question, is the core of this breed of paper.
Convention has it that theses are generally found in the introductory paragraph(s), which makes sense considering your reader will get frustrated if your persuading point isn't stated early on. This is why guides to true ANALYTICAL papers--even our short description above--avoid using the word "thesis" altogether and describe you as "drawing conclusions." They recognize that your critical evaluations, insights, and discoveries are going to be located toward the end of the paper and so are not theses in the true sense of the word.
Note: While it would be really useful to call them thesis papers from here on in (since a proper argumentative paper should always have a thesis statement), we can't use that name. Technically, a real "thesis paper" is the name given to the research projects pursued at levels of university beyond a Bachelor's Degree. Since you're probably still an undergraduate, refrain from calling argumentative papers "thesis papers" and you'll avoid confusion.
In true research paper fashion, we have just laid out the difference between analytical and argumentative papers in a more abstract form. To drive the point home, here is the concrete example we promised earlier:
Example
For an ANALYTICAL research paper, let's say you have decided to explore "the purpose of madness in Renaissance tragedies." You don't have an answer in mind to turn that into a sentence (that wouldn't be following the purpose of your paper!) so you do some research to locate instances of insanity in various plays.
The body of the paper would analyze or break down the topic into three or four "parts" which will later become the main paragraphs of your draft. Perhaps your research helps you discover several purposes to madness in these tragedies, with your paper devoting a paragraph to considering each. Or perhaps there's debate among scholars as to the main purpose of madness, so you decide to present some of these varying opinions. However you choose to explore the topic, in the body of your paper you'd be using evidence from the plays themselves (a.k.a. primary sources) and expert opinions on the plays (a.k.a. secondary sources).
Your concluding paragraph(s) would finally incorporate some of your critical interpretations of both the plays and the experts' essays. Here, you'd include a critical evaluation and discussion of your overall findings as well as some conclusions based on the patterns you've researched or detected yourself to make some final comments about the purpose of madness in Renaissance tragedies.
Now, an ARGUMENTATIVE paper would lay out exactly what you consider to be the purpose of madness in Renaissance tragedies in a declarative sentence right in the introduction--the thesis statement. Thus, the template would change accordingly to "the purpose of madness in Renaissance tragedies is ______ (for comic relief? to provide a reflection of moral chaos? and so on and so forth)." See, it ceases to be just a topic (notice above that our topic for the analytical paper is not a sentence!) and has become instead an interpretation. The course of the paper will develop why you believe--and importantly, why the reader should believe--what you do.
This time, you'll select only that evidence (still examples from plays and opinions from experts) which directly supports your thesis. The body of your paper turns into a site for laying out the proof you've collected rather than a canvas for delineating a topic. And considering that scholars still debate the psychological state of Prince Hamlet (close to 400 years after the play was written!), there is no right or wrong answer. You will not get a bad mark if your professor happens to completely disagree with your thesis. That's not the point. Solid back-up and convincing arguments, not safe thesis statements, are what make for happy profs.
Because your insights, which are what your professors are most interested in, are the very fulcrum on which an argumentative paper balances rather than just interspersed or tacked on the end of analytical papers, argumentative papers are probably the most popular type of research paper. Of course, your experiences may vary depending on the courses and teachers you have.
What is a Research Paper?
From http://www.esc.edu/esconline/across_esc/writerscomplex.nsf/3cc42a422514347a8525671d0049f395/ddbc866bc537f67e85256a460066ab2d?OpenDocument#analysis
What is a Research Paper?
"Research paper." What image comes into mind as you hear those words: working with stacks of articles and books, hunting the "treasure" of others' thoughts? Whatever image you create, it's a sure bet that you're envisioning sources of information--articles, books, people, artworks. Yet a research paper is more than the sum of your sources, more than a collection of different pieces of information about a topic, and more than a review of the literature in a field. A research paper analyzes a perspective or argues a point. Regardless of the type of research paper you are writing, your finished research paper should present your own thinking backed up by others' ideas and information.
To draw a parallel, a lawyer researches and reads about many cases and uses them to support her own case. A scientist reads many case studies to support an idea about a scientific principle. In the same way, a history student writing about the Vietnam War might read newspaper articles and books and interview veterans to develop and/or confirm a viewpoint and support it with evidence.
A research paper is an expanded essay that presents your own interpretation or evaluation or argument. When you write an essay, you use everything that you personally know and have thought about a subject. When you write a research paper you build upon what you know about the subject and make a deliberate attempt to find out what experts know. A research paper involves surveying a field of knowledge in order to find the best possible information in that field. And that survey can be orderly and focused, if you know how to approach it. Don't worry--you won't get lost in a sea of sources.
In fact, this guide is designed to help you navigate the research voyage, through developing a research question and thesis, doing the research, writing the paper, and correctly documenting your sources.
Review of the Literature in a Field
A review of the literature in a field requires you to research information and then summarize and paraphrase. The purpose of a review is to show that you can find and understand the important professional literature in a particular field of study.
A literature review differs from a research paper. A research paper adds another step to the finding, understanding, and rewording of the information that you do in a literature review. A research paper adds the step of synthesizing the information and developing your own insight or analysis or argument on a topic or issue that the information presents.
Analysis in Research Papers
To analyze means to break a topic or concept down into its parts in order to inspect and understand it, and to restructure those parts in a way that makes sense to you. In an analytical research paper, you do research to become an expert on a topic so that you can restructure and present the parts of the topic from your own perspective. For example, you could analyze the role of the mother in the ancient Egyptian family. You could break down that topic into its parts--the mother's duties in the family, social status, and expected role in the larger society--and research those parts in order to present your general perspective and conclusion about the mother's role.
Argument in Research Papers
An argumentative research paper needs to support your stand on an issue. An argumentative research paper is analytical, but it uses information as evidence to support its point, much as a lawyer uses evidence to make his case. For example, you might try to find research to back up the stand that ancient Egyptian women were the first feminists. Notice that this is a very different focus than an analytical focus on the role of the mother in ancient Egyptian society--argument uses evidence to take a stand on an issue whereas analysis uses evidence to support a perspective on a topic.
An argument uses evidence to take a stand on an issue.
Essay
The essay is an art form with a long and powerful tradition and recognizable qualities. The most important element of an essay is your thinking. Unless you write honestly, with the conviction that comes when using your own voice, you are not writing an essay. An essay generally addresses one central question and develops a thesis--the answer to the question. Usually you explain or defend your thesis with reasons and evidence gained from your own personal experience; often you are expected to include new thinking gained from your reading or research. Generally, you will need to settle on some organizational strategy, often including an introduction, body, and conclusion.
From http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/types.html
còn nhiều link hay từ trang này,nên xem thêm
Genre
The two main types: to analyze or to argue? That is the question.
Regardless of the type of research paper you're writing, we hope the previous discussion of what a research paper is has established that your finished paper should be a presentation of your own thinking backed up by the ideas or information of others in the field. However, whether your paper is ANALYTICAL (uses evidence to analyze facets of an issue) or ARGUMENTATIVE (uses evidence to attempt to convince the reader of your particular stance on a debatable topic), is definitely going to have a bearing on your strategy from here on in. In fact, it will determine your paper's purpose. So here's a more thorough discussion of the difference between the two types, followed by a concrete example that directly compares the two.
1) Analytical Papers
As the staff at the SUNY Empire State College Writer's Complex so aptly explains it: "To analyze means to break a topic or concept down into its parts in order to inspect and understand it, and to restructure those parts in a way that makes sense to you. In an analytical research paper, you do research to become an expert on a topic so that you can restructure and present the parts of the topic from your own perspective." 1
In this brand of research paper, therefore, you go into the researching stage with a specific topic about which you have not made any kind of conclusions. Often you will hear this called your research question. Your task is to survey the information and views already out there--both before and once you become familiar with the topic. That will require critical thinking and reading, plus evaluation of the resources you handle. By the end of the paper you will be able to contribute your own thoughts to the academic discussion by drawing some conclusions about the topic you have just analyzed.
Your task is to survey the information and views already out there--both before and once you become familiar with the topic. That will require critical thinking and reading, plus evaluation of the resources.
What exactly does critical thinking mean though?
A term thrown around at the post-secondary level, "critical thinking" is a broad concept that encompasses a lot about college or university academic expectations. But for our purposes it's enough to say that in a research or reading context it means not considering any view as "truth" simply because a source has been published or seems to be an expert. It requires you to maintain some objectivity and ask questions to yourself as you read (or watch or listen). This slight air of initial skepticism urges the resource to convince you of its authority. In short, a critical eye teaches you to regard anything-- especially if it's published or in other media-- as if you're doing a peer edit or with the attitude your own professor will be adopting while marking your paper. No matter what your knowledge level, as a student with fresh eyes and unique experiences, you always have inquisitiveness as a skill; this is how students enter a research community with some authority of their own.
For more guidelines about what critical thinking and reading actually are, visit:
Thinking Critically from the University of Victoria Learning Skills Program page
Critical Reading from the University of Saskatchewan's "U-Study" Library Instruction Guide
2) Argumentative (or Persuasive) Papers
In addition to the concept of critical thinking (which any paper at the university level will demand of you), another widely-used term at the college level which you may or may not be familiar with in its academic context, is the term argument. This is the basis of the persuasive kind of research paper.
The Student Services staff at Charles Sturt University in Australia defines an argument as "a series of generalizations or propositions, supported by evidence or reasoning and connected in a logical manner, that lead to a justified conclusion. You must sustain your argument by giving evidence and reasons."
In direct contrast to the analytical paper, your approach here is to take a stand on an issue and use evidence to back-up your stance, not to explore or flesh out an unresolved topic. We have included an entire step just on this aspect of the research paper writing process, but it's probably worth your while now to know that this stance, this debatable statement or interpretation is known as your thesis.
In direct contrast to the analytical paper, your approach here is to take a stand on an issue and use evidence to back-up your stance, not to explore or flesh out an unresolved topic.
Argumentative or persuasive papers, as these names suggest, are attempts--after all, essay does come from the French word essai, or "attempt"--to convince the reader of a debatable or controversial point of view.
That point of view--your thesis--and not some research question, is the core of this breed of paper.
Convention has it that theses are generally found in the introductory paragraph(s), which makes sense considering your reader will get frustrated if your persuading point isn't stated early on. This is why guides to true ANALYTICAL papers--even our short description above--avoid using the word "thesis" altogether and describe you as "drawing conclusions." They recognize that your critical evaluations, insights, and discoveries are going to be located toward the end of the paper and so are not theses in the true sense of the word.
Note: While it would be really useful to call them thesis papers from here on in (since a proper argumentative paper should always have a thesis statement), we can't use that name. Technically, a real "thesis paper" is the name given to the research projects pursued at levels of university beyond a Bachelor's Degree. Since you're probably still an undergraduate, refrain from calling argumentative papers "thesis papers" and you'll avoid confusion.
In true research paper fashion, we have just laid out the difference between analytical and argumentative papers in a more abstract form. To drive the point home, here is the concrete example we promised earlier:
Example
For an ANALYTICAL research paper, let's say you have decided to explore "the purpose of madness in Renaissance tragedies." You don't have an answer in mind to turn that into a sentence (that wouldn't be following the purpose of your paper!) so you do some research to locate instances of insanity in various plays.
The body of the paper would analyze or break down the topic into three or four "parts" which will later become the main paragraphs of your draft. Perhaps your research helps you discover several purposes to madness in these tragedies, with your paper devoting a paragraph to considering each. Or perhaps there's debate among scholars as to the main purpose of madness, so you decide to present some of these varying opinions. However you choose to explore the topic, in the body of your paper you'd be using evidence from the plays themselves (a.k.a. primary sources) and expert opinions on the plays (a.k.a. secondary sources).
Your concluding paragraph(s) would finally incorporate some of your critical interpretations of both the plays and the experts' essays. Here, you'd include a critical evaluation and discussion of your overall findings as well as some conclusions based on the patterns you've researched or detected yourself to make some final comments about the purpose of madness in Renaissance tragedies.
Now, an ARGUMENTATIVE paper would lay out exactly what you consider to be the purpose of madness in Renaissance tragedies in a declarative sentence right in the introduction--the thesis statement. Thus, the template would change accordingly to "the purpose of madness in Renaissance tragedies is ______ (for comic relief? to provide a reflection of moral chaos? and so on and so forth)." See, it ceases to be just a topic (notice above that our topic for the analytical paper is not a sentence!) and has become instead an interpretation. The course of the paper will develop why you believe--and importantly, why the reader should believe--what you do.
This time, you'll select only that evidence (still examples from plays and opinions from experts) which directly supports your thesis. The body of your paper turns into a site for laying out the proof you've collected rather than a canvas for delineating a topic. And considering that scholars still debate the psychological state of Prince Hamlet (close to 400 years after the play was written!), there is no right or wrong answer. You will not get a bad mark if your professor happens to completely disagree with your thesis. That's not the point. Solid back-up and convincing arguments, not safe thesis statements, are what make for happy profs.
Because your insights, which are what your professors are most interested in, are the very fulcrum on which an argumentative paper balances rather than just interspersed or tacked on the end of analytical papers, argumentative papers are probably the most popular type of research paper. Of course, your experiences may vary depending on the courses and teachers you have.
What is a Research Paper?
From http://www.esc.edu/esconline/across_esc/writerscomplex.nsf/3cc42a422514347a8525671d0049f395/ddbc866bc537f67e85256a460066ab2d?OpenDocument#analysis
What is a Research Paper?
"Research paper." What image comes into mind as you hear those words: working with stacks of articles and books, hunting the "treasure" of others' thoughts? Whatever image you create, it's a sure bet that you're envisioning sources of information--articles, books, people, artworks. Yet a research paper is more than the sum of your sources, more than a collection of different pieces of information about a topic, and more than a review of the literature in a field. A research paper analyzes a perspective or argues a point. Regardless of the type of research paper you are writing, your finished research paper should present your own thinking backed up by others' ideas and information.
To draw a parallel, a lawyer researches and reads about many cases and uses them to support her own case. A scientist reads many case studies to support an idea about a scientific principle. In the same way, a history student writing about the Vietnam War might read newspaper articles and books and interview veterans to develop and/or confirm a viewpoint and support it with evidence.
A research paper is an expanded essay that presents your own interpretation or evaluation or argument. When you write an essay, you use everything that you personally know and have thought about a subject. When you write a research paper you build upon what you know about the subject and make a deliberate attempt to find out what experts know. A research paper involves surveying a field of knowledge in order to find the best possible information in that field. And that survey can be orderly and focused, if you know how to approach it. Don't worry--you won't get lost in a sea of sources.
In fact, this guide is designed to help you navigate the research voyage, through developing a research question and thesis, doing the research, writing the paper, and correctly documenting your sources.
Review of the Literature in a Field
A review of the literature in a field requires you to research information and then summarize and paraphrase. The purpose of a review is to show that you can find and understand the important professional literature in a particular field of study.
A literature review differs from a research paper. A research paper adds another step to the finding, understanding, and rewording of the information that you do in a literature review. A research paper adds the step of synthesizing the information and developing your own insight or analysis or argument on a topic or issue that the information presents.
Analysis in Research Papers
To analyze means to break a topic or concept down into its parts in order to inspect and understand it, and to restructure those parts in a way that makes sense to you. In an analytical research paper, you do research to become an expert on a topic so that you can restructure and present the parts of the topic from your own perspective. For example, you could analyze the role of the mother in the ancient Egyptian family. You could break down that topic into its parts--the mother's duties in the family, social status, and expected role in the larger society--and research those parts in order to present your general perspective and conclusion about the mother's role.
Argument in Research Papers
An argumentative research paper needs to support your stand on an issue. An argumentative research paper is analytical, but it uses information as evidence to support its point, much as a lawyer uses evidence to make his case. For example, you might try to find research to back up the stand that ancient Egyptian women were the first feminists. Notice that this is a very different focus than an analytical focus on the role of the mother in ancient Egyptian society--argument uses evidence to take a stand on an issue whereas analysis uses evidence to support a perspective on a topic.
An argument uses evidence to take a stand on an issue.
Essay
The essay is an art form with a long and powerful tradition and recognizable qualities. The most important element of an essay is your thinking. Unless you write honestly, with the conviction that comes when using your own voice, you are not writing an essay. An essay generally addresses one central question and develops a thesis--the answer to the question. Usually you explain or defend your thesis with reasons and evidence gained from your own personal experience; often you are expected to include new thinking gained from your reading or research. Generally, you will need to settle on some organizational strategy, often including an introduction, body, and conclusion.
Thứ Hai, 23 tháng 7, 2007
MIT useful links
1.http://web.mit.edu/sfs/financial_aid/index.html
2.International Students Office (ISO) : http://web.mit.edu/iso/
3.The MIT International Scholars Office (ISO) : http://web.mit.edu/scholars/
4.http://web.mit.edu/urop/basicinfo/
5.http://web.mit.edu/urop/students/
useful email:
1.International Students Office (ISO): iso-help@mit.edu
2.Financial Aid : finaid@mit.edu
3.The Writing and Communication Center: writing-center@mit.edu
need to view:
1.http://web.mit.edu/due/
2.http://web.mit.edu/dsl/
3.http://web.mit.edu/registrar/www/calendar.html
4.http://web.mit.edu/career/www/
5.http://web.mit.edu/iap/
6.http://student.mit.edu/catalog/index.cgi
7.http://web.mit.edu/sfs/jobs/index.html
8.http://student.mit.edu/
2.International Students Office (ISO) : http://web.mit.edu/iso/
3.The MIT International Scholars Office (ISO) : http://web.mit.edu/scholars/
4.http://web.mit.edu/urop/basicinfo/
5.http://web.mit.edu/urop/students/
useful email:
1.International Students Office (ISO): iso-help@mit.edu
2.Financial Aid : finaid@mit.edu
3.The Writing and Communication Center: writing-center@mit.edu
need to view:
1.http://web.mit.edu/due/
2.http://web.mit.edu/dsl/
3.http://web.mit.edu/registrar/www/calendar.html
4.http://web.mit.edu/career/www/
5.http://web.mit.edu/iap/
6.http://student.mit.edu/catalog/index.cgi
7.http://web.mit.edu/sfs/jobs/index.html
8.http://student.mit.edu/
Public Speaking Tips
From http://web.mit.edu/urop/resources/speaking.html#writing
Public Speaking Tips
The following tips are taken from SPEAKING UP©, MIT Freshman Advising Seminar 055, that was offered by Norma McGavern (former UROP Director) in Fall 1996. These tips provide you with advice on how to deliver your message clearly and strongly, with as little pain as possible for you —the speaker —and your audience.
Click on one of the links below to jump to more information on the topic of interest to you.
Preparation for Speaking —Your Voice and the Sounds It Makes
Writing for Speaking
Mapping the Content of your Speech
Writing Elements and Speaking Elements
The Audience and You
Using Visuals
On the Day of Your Speech- Avoid Panic!
Preparation for Speaking—Your Voice (what you start out with) and the Sound it Makes.
1. Speech Is What You Do With Sound.
Remember where the source of your voice is--it's not in your mouth! Air is pushed out from your abdomen, not from your throat . Before speaking--and while speaking, take deep breaths that result from diaphragm movement, not movement of the upper chest.
It's a physical thing. The muscles between the ribs contract when you take a breath, and the ribs swing up and out. The diaphragm contracts, then descends and flattens, causing a slight displacement of abdominal organs and an expansion of the upper end of the abdomen. The size of the chest cavity increases and air rushes in to fill the vacuum. When you exhale, muscles relax and return to the resting position and air is forced out of the lungs.
You can do an exercise. Feel where the air is coming from. Stand up, put your hand on your abdomen; let air in, let air out. Count to 5, then 10, on a breath. Feel it? It's relaxing.
Speaking posture: Stand in a comfortable position, not rigidly straight, not slumped over.
2. Your Voice Creates An Impression. What Kind Of Impression Do You Want To Make?
(A) Pitch: The tone of your voice. It is high? Low? A low voice may carry better. Correct breathing will help you achieve a lower pitch, to a point. So will relaxing.
(B) Inflection: Don't sound querulous. That is, don't end sentences with an upward tone as you do when you ask a question (unless you want to sound uncertain). Beware of the inflections of sarcasm; these inflections usually don't play well and can sound whiny and annoying.
(C) Pace: The speed at which your thoughts are put together out loud. Normal conversational speech is done with rapid bursts of sound. Public speaking pace should be slower and more deliberate than conversational speech. What may seem to be too slow to the speaker is very likely just right for the audience. The pace you choose may be related to the kind of audience and content of your material. Aim for a slow pace, with lots of pauses between ideas.
(D) Articulation and Pronunciation: Articulation is the ability to produce individual sounds. Pronunciation is putting sounds together to make understandable words. Understandability is key. Don't blur words. Voice complete and distinct sounds. This is not as simple as it sounds. Articulating plosives is a big help: b. d, g, dz (j in jump), p, t, k, ts, (ch in child), particularly when they end words as in "white."
Say only words! Don't vocalize, making sounds like "um, uh, er, aaah." Avoid sounds that only masquerade as words, like "like," that impart zero information. Learn to enjoy silence.
3. Get Your Voice Ready!
(A) Practice breath control. Avoid upper thoracic (throat) breathing.
(B) Find your natural standing body position and be comfortable.
(C) Watch what you eat before a talk. Avoid dairy products. Coagulation occurs around vocal chords and makes you want to clear your throat. Avoid having a large meal beforehand.
(D) Practice your speech by giving it to a tape recorder. This will be the harshest test you can give yourself. If you have no tape recorder, practice it out loud.
(E) Get your voice to stretch. Make sure it can reach the back of the room, at least in practice. In reality, you will probably have a microphone--but what if you don't?
Writing For Speaking
1. You Will Probably Read Your Speech (or Glance At Notes):
Having notes with you is the safest way to give a speech, especially a long speech or one filled with important points. Those notes should be as helpful as possible. They should serve as a script.
Don't read everything! Never read: "Hello. I'm happy to be here." (There goes any illusion of spontaneity!)
Adjust your notes to the actual situation: "In Figure Two we can see..." (Can we?).
Write how you talk. We don't talk the way we write. Written work can sound stuffy and pompous when being read. Sentences with numerous sub-clauses may look great in an essay, but aren't easily followed in a speech. Besides, why should people sit and hear what they could more easily read? What do you add to prose by speaking it aloud?
Avoid clichés (they make your speech sound "canned"), and cumbersome words (What did he say?). Say it simply, straightforwardly, in your very own words.
Give yourself written aural hints. It's a script, after all. Give yourself stage directions. Write down hints like "pause" and underline words you want to emphasize. Number the pages. Don't write on the back of pages when you have written on the front.
Write or type with VERY LARGE fonts and lots of spacing. It is a script. You will be acting it out. You will not be able to peer at it closely.
Speed kills, especially when a talk is loaded with statistics, technical phrases and complex ideas. Reading statistics is safer than saying them from memory. You will sound more trustworthy.
2. If You Insist On Speaking From Memory...
This is actually an excellent way to speak if:
(A) you have a real talent for it,
(B) other people agree you have a talent for it,
(C) you relate well to live audiences and like to think on your feet,
(D) you have given the same speech many times before, or
(E) the occasion is so informal that you know lapses will be forgiven.
Don't do a brain dump. Think about what you're saying; don't go into automatic gear so that you become unstoppable. Be flexible.
Don't ramble. When your audience is aware you have no notes, they may worry where you're going with the subject matter and how long it will take you to get there. Also be on the lookout for vagueness and inaccuracy or the appearance thereof.
Have notes available, just in case. It never hurts to have notes on hand that you don't need to use.
3. Do What Works Best For You.
Remember:
Memorizing has potentially dangerous shortcomings (like going blank).
Speaking impromptu , off the cuff is risky, though spontaneous. Talent and experience help tremendously. Best done at informal occasions.
Reading a speech can be dull but, with practice, shouldn't be. This is clearly the safest method.
Small note cards printed with abbreviated notes, lead-in phrases, important words or statistics and other cues make one of the best all-around choices--if you practice.
Mapping the Content of Your Speech
1. The Visible Structure:
The audience should be aware of your speech structure. It's like knowing where you are on a road map--the audience will be happier if they know where you are in your speech at any given time, and where you're headed.
(A) Outline what will be told. Tell them what you're going to tell them.
(B) Let the audience know where you are going. "Next, I'll describe..." "Then, I'll show you..."
(C) Count: "There are three ways..." "I will tell you two stories that illustrate..." Keep track of those numbers!
(D) Refer back to what you said earlier. Tie loose ends together. Remind them.
(E) Use repetition. Begin similar points with the same words (but not excessively!).
(F) Use repetition. Refer to the same things and the same people in the same way each time. The audience cannot flip back a page to check a name.
(G) Assign responsibility. Don't be vague and say, "they believe..." or "they say..." unless you tell the audience who they are. If you are speaking of only your own beliefs, take responsibility and say, "I believe that..."
(H) Give credit for ideas and quotations you use. Speeches don't have footnotes.
(I) Create a motif, if you can ("I have a dream..."), but know when to do it. Don't create a motif if you--or the occasion--aren't up to it.
2. Putting One Foot Before the Other
Ask yourself these questions: Is your order logical? Are you following a route? Are you taking your audience down a road they can visualize?
(A) Does the evidence you give lead to the conclusion you intend to draw?
(B) Don't be preachy (unless you are truly preaching). Don't throw conclusions at the audience. Work up to conclusions with information.
(C) Present events chronologically (or in some other appropriate order).
(D) Do the events or data build to a climax?
3. Be Concrete. Be Metaphorical.
A few specifics are almost always better than many generalizations.
(A) Make analogies . Give examples.
(B) Tell a story that illustrates the point.
(C) Show spatial relationships . Visualize things. Use your hands!
(D) Give details. Only you have this information--what is it (your subject) really like?
(E) Don't hang an entire speech on the hook of a single metaphor (i.e. every aspect of a game of football represents a point you want to make, etc.)
4. In Conclusion...
(A) Check the time discreetly . Be prepared to wind up quickly, or compress final stories.
(B) Reiterate your major points . Did you tell them what you said you would?
(C) Don't fade away. The last sentence should be one of your strongest.
Writing Elements & Speaking ElementsIn a Written Piece
How is necessary information given in a written article? In a Speech
How do you give the same information when you're speaking out loud?
Title of book or article, author's name and (sometimes) author's position and background: Someone introduces the speaker, gives information about the speaker that is relevant to the occasion, plus the title or subject matter of the speech, etc.
Table of contents: Speaker tells the audience what s/he's going to talk about.
Charts, tables: Overheads, slides, the blackboard, a live demonstration, miming (describing something with gestures), etc.
Underlined words, words in boldface, exclamation points! Speaker writes word on blackboard, lingers on the word and/or repeats it; speaker uses appropriate hand gestures for emphasis.
Photographs: Speaker tells anecdotes or stories which illuminate important points.
Paragraphs: Speaker pauses for a few seconds between separate sections or ideas.
List of items in alphabetical, numerical, or bulleted order: Speaker counts off items in numerical order ("one... two..," etc.) to help audience keep track.
Chapter headings: Speaker says s/he is now going to talk about the following...
Quotation marks Speaker says "as X once said..." or uses the words "quote" and "unquote," (but does not make quote signs in the air with his/her fingers).
Footnotes: Speaker takes a brief moment to explain words, references, etc. which may not be understandable to everyone. This is equivalent to making a parenthetical remark.
Page numbers: Speaker lets the audience know where s/he is in the speech. For example: "First I'll describe X, and then I'll tell you about Y..."
Names, or other identification (reader can't turn back a page to check): Speaker calls people, places and things by the same name each time so that it is clear to what or whom s/he is referring. Speaker refers back: "X works in the same way as Y which I told you about earlier..."
Ending may be titled "Conclusions." Final sentence is a strong, summary, or even visionary statement: Speaker indicates by summarizing (saying "in conclusion..."), and by tone of voice that the speech is ending. Final sentence is a strong summary, or even visionary statement.
The Audience and You
1. Who Are They?
(A) What is the background (knowledge base) of the people you are going to be talking to? Adjust the level of your talk accordingly. Try to reach everyone.
(B) What mood are they likely to be in? What did they do before your talk? What are they going to be doing after? Is the atmosphere or setting formal or informal?
(C) Who are they? Both sexes, more than likely, probably religiously and ethnically diverse, etc. Therefore:
Don't exclude part of your audience by (for example) referring solely to "men" and telling stories using only the pronoun "he." On the other hand, don't pander to your audience by overdoing in the opposite direction.
Making a show of your thoughtfulness by switching genders in every remark you make can be annoying.
Don't assume your audience is tuned into or sympathetic with group "in-jokes."
(D) Be prepared to update your talk on the spot as the result of pre-speech encounters with members of the audience. Value these encounters and mingle, if you can, before you talk. You will have an opportunity to find out who they are, what they are interested in, and what they are hoping to hear or not hear. You may be able to add a comment like, "Someone told me this evening that..." to your talk.
(E) Questions: If you have the slightest hint that not everyone has heard the question being asked, repeat it before you proceed to answer it. It is frustrating to hear only answers.
(F) Handling disruption: It's probably best to acknowledge a disruption. But if you do, you will draw attention to it. So, if it's a minor disruption, it may be wiser to ignore it. Remember, at the podium, you are in charge, and your attitude will to a large extent determine the attitude of the audience.
2. Who Are You , Anyway?
(A) Why are you the one speaking on this subject? The person who introduced you may not have told this to the audience or covered all the right points. Fill them in. Make corrections.
(B) Be honest! Tell the audience how you feel. Make sure feelings and attitudes you discuss are ascribed to the right person or group. Remember the difference between "I believe" and "they believe."
If you don't know the answer to a question from the audience, admit it. Defer to an expert. Offer to look it up. If it involves a long (and possibly boring) answer, suggest the person talk with you afterwards.
(C) Make eye contact. but don't link eyes with one person. You will make him/her feel uncomfortable. See everyone; back, front, sides.
(D) If you make an error, ignore it and seamlessly move on. Or, acknowledge it briefly and then move on. Or, engage the sympathy of the audience by either confessing the error or making a small joke about it. (Warning: Jokes are high risk. What if no one laughs?)
(E) Look friendly. An audience is unlikely to warm to a speaker who seems unhappy at the prospect of talking to them. Match your demeanor to your topic, not to your anxieties.
Using Visuals
(A) You, the speaker, are a visual aid. You are "on stage" the moment you are introduced. You can't pretend you're not there while you set up your demonstration or check out the podium, etc. That's one reason it's best to have things set up--and checked out--in advance, especially when the set-up is complicated.
(B) Talk while you do stuff. If you must set up a visual aid while you are delivering your talk, plan to talk about it while you're doing this, especially if this is a lengthy process. You need to keep control of the audience; don't let them drift away.
(C) Keep demonstrations or materials simple . Don't get yourself caught up running a three-ring circus. There will be too much for you to do; too much can go wrong, and you may trip over all your electrical cords (especially if they were not taped to the floor).
(D) Keep the visuals simple. If you are showing something on a screen, one idea per slide or overhead is about right. Avoid complicated slides/overheads. Don't show pictures of things you do not intend to explain. Lead your audience through diagrams, even if you think they are simple.
(E) Avoid annoying the audience:
Don't read to them. If a slide has a great deal of writing on it, give them time to read it; they can read faster than you can speak.
Use a pointer when you can, not your hands. Stay away from a light beam pointer unless you can hold it steady (most people can't, especially when they're nervous).
If you are RIGHT-handed, stand on the RIGHT side of a visual display from the audience's perspective (If you're writing on the blackboard this will be your LEFT.) It will force you to keep your body somewhat turned toward the audience even while working on the blackboard; you can talk to the audience over you right shoulder if you talk while writing.
Look at the slides you are showing; make sure they are showing what you say they are showing.
If you use an overhead projector, practice laying transparencies right-side-up and turning the projector on/off. Keep your hands off transparencies while they are being displayed.
Be certain that equipment works; check it out in advance. Number slides, and make sure they are facing properly. You should have checked the room in advance.
Make sure everyone can see your demonstration or slides. And listen to your audience: if people indicate they cannot see, find a way they can.
(F) Heighten interest. If you have a number of objects to display, reveal them one at a time. Don't show your audience all your tricks before you begin. When you're finished with an object, put it away. Don't play with it.
(G) Chose the right time to give out handouts . Do you want people to look at them while you talk? Will the handouts heighten interest in your talk? Or diminish it?
(H) Practice your speech with all the visuals. Time them as they are integrated with your speech, and get comfortable with the way they fit in. Including visuals will magically lengthen the time it takes you to give your speech.
On the Day of Your Speech- Avoid Panic!
Check everything! Pretend to be confident!
1. Did you preview the site? Check room size, acoustics, lighting (and how to control it, if it's controllable), microphones, availability of a blackboard, chalk, electrical outlets, where people enter and exit, etc.
2. Do you know where your equipment is? Confirm your order for an overhead, etc. Plan where to locate your handouts. Consider whether you should have them available in advance or after your talk.
3. Establish where you will situate yourself with relation to your graphics and equipment. Will you block the view? How will you point things out? Where should your notes rest?
4. Don't eat heavily before your talk, and avoid milk products. The reasons for avoiding a heavy meal may be obvious. Milk products coat your larynx and may cause you to do a lot of throat-clearing.
5. Mingle with the audience before you speak, if you have the opportunity. You may learn some relevant things that you can incorporate into your talk. Or make a last minute adjustment to what you were going to say.
6. How are you being introduced? Did you tell the person who will introduce you what to say? And how to pronounce your name? Listen carefully to your introduction and take note so that when you speak, you don't repeat what was said. Make a mental note to add to it or make a minor correction if you think it's necessary.
7. Once you've been announced, you are on stage. From the moment you were introduced you have been the focus of the audience's attention. It has no one else to look at but you. Move confidently.
8. When you're ready to begin- don't. Wait! Take a moment to catch your breath. (Remember- abdominal breathing!) Make a pleasant face at the audience. Take a comfortable stance. Breathe. Look at everyone before you start.
9. Keep an eye on your equipment as you move around or move things around. Avoid lengthy silences while you adjust equipment or arrange visuals or write on the blackboard. Talk and do. Watch where you're walking. Don't get tangled up in electrical cords. Keep your overheads in order as you use them. Don't get too close to the microphone.
10. Questions: the inaudible, the complex, the unanswerable, and the hostile. Repeat questions to the rest of the audience. Feel free to comment, e.g., "That's a good question!" Break complicated ones into simple components; tell the person asking a question you can't answer that you'll get back to him/her later or that you don't know. Don't respond to hostile questions by repeating the accusation; answer positively.
11. Head up when you're done! End naturally, without a "thank you." Look at the audience and acknowledge to them that you are done. Save your "thank you" for the roar of applause. Smile. Leave the podium as slowly as you walked to it. Don't look as if you're escaping. Head up all the way back to your seat!
Public Speaking Tips
The following tips are taken from SPEAKING UP©, MIT Freshman Advising Seminar 055, that was offered by Norma McGavern (former UROP Director) in Fall 1996. These tips provide you with advice on how to deliver your message clearly and strongly, with as little pain as possible for you —the speaker —and your audience.
Click on one of the links below to jump to more information on the topic of interest to you.
Preparation for Speaking —Your Voice and the Sounds It Makes
Writing for Speaking
Mapping the Content of your Speech
Writing Elements and Speaking Elements
The Audience and You
Using Visuals
On the Day of Your Speech- Avoid Panic!
Preparation for Speaking—Your Voice (what you start out with) and the Sound it Makes.
1. Speech Is What You Do With Sound.
Remember where the source of your voice is--it's not in your mouth! Air is pushed out from your abdomen, not from your throat . Before speaking--and while speaking, take deep breaths that result from diaphragm movement, not movement of the upper chest.
It's a physical thing. The muscles between the ribs contract when you take a breath, and the ribs swing up and out. The diaphragm contracts, then descends and flattens, causing a slight displacement of abdominal organs and an expansion of the upper end of the abdomen. The size of the chest cavity increases and air rushes in to fill the vacuum. When you exhale, muscles relax and return to the resting position and air is forced out of the lungs.
You can do an exercise. Feel where the air is coming from. Stand up, put your hand on your abdomen; let air in, let air out. Count to 5, then 10, on a breath. Feel it? It's relaxing.
Speaking posture: Stand in a comfortable position, not rigidly straight, not slumped over.
2. Your Voice Creates An Impression. What Kind Of Impression Do You Want To Make?
(A) Pitch: The tone of your voice. It is high? Low? A low voice may carry better. Correct breathing will help you achieve a lower pitch, to a point. So will relaxing.
(B) Inflection: Don't sound querulous. That is, don't end sentences with an upward tone as you do when you ask a question (unless you want to sound uncertain). Beware of the inflections of sarcasm; these inflections usually don't play well and can sound whiny and annoying.
(C) Pace: The speed at which your thoughts are put together out loud. Normal conversational speech is done with rapid bursts of sound. Public speaking pace should be slower and more deliberate than conversational speech. What may seem to be too slow to the speaker is very likely just right for the audience. The pace you choose may be related to the kind of audience and content of your material. Aim for a slow pace, with lots of pauses between ideas.
(D) Articulation and Pronunciation: Articulation is the ability to produce individual sounds. Pronunciation is putting sounds together to make understandable words. Understandability is key. Don't blur words. Voice complete and distinct sounds. This is not as simple as it sounds. Articulating plosives is a big help: b. d, g, dz (j in jump), p, t, k, ts, (ch in child), particularly when they end words as in "white."
Say only words! Don't vocalize, making sounds like "um, uh, er, aaah." Avoid sounds that only masquerade as words, like "like," that impart zero information. Learn to enjoy silence.
3. Get Your Voice Ready!
(A) Practice breath control. Avoid upper thoracic (throat) breathing.
(B) Find your natural standing body position and be comfortable.
(C) Watch what you eat before a talk. Avoid dairy products. Coagulation occurs around vocal chords and makes you want to clear your throat. Avoid having a large meal beforehand.
(D) Practice your speech by giving it to a tape recorder. This will be the harshest test you can give yourself. If you have no tape recorder, practice it out loud.
(E) Get your voice to stretch. Make sure it can reach the back of the room, at least in practice. In reality, you will probably have a microphone--but what if you don't?
Writing For Speaking
1. You Will Probably Read Your Speech (or Glance At Notes):
Having notes with you is the safest way to give a speech, especially a long speech or one filled with important points. Those notes should be as helpful as possible. They should serve as a script.
Don't read everything! Never read: "Hello. I'm happy to be here." (There goes any illusion of spontaneity!)
Adjust your notes to the actual situation: "In Figure Two we can see..." (Can we?).
Write how you talk. We don't talk the way we write. Written work can sound stuffy and pompous when being read. Sentences with numerous sub-clauses may look great in an essay, but aren't easily followed in a speech. Besides, why should people sit and hear what they could more easily read? What do you add to prose by speaking it aloud?
Avoid clichés (they make your speech sound "canned"), and cumbersome words (What did he say?). Say it simply, straightforwardly, in your very own words.
Give yourself written aural hints. It's a script, after all. Give yourself stage directions. Write down hints like "pause" and underline words you want to emphasize. Number the pages. Don't write on the back of pages when you have written on the front.
Write or type with VERY LARGE fonts and lots of spacing. It is a script. You will be acting it out. You will not be able to peer at it closely.
Speed kills, especially when a talk is loaded with statistics, technical phrases and complex ideas. Reading statistics is safer than saying them from memory. You will sound more trustworthy.
2. If You Insist On Speaking From Memory...
This is actually an excellent way to speak if:
(A) you have a real talent for it,
(B) other people agree you have a talent for it,
(C) you relate well to live audiences and like to think on your feet,
(D) you have given the same speech many times before, or
(E) the occasion is so informal that you know lapses will be forgiven.
Don't do a brain dump. Think about what you're saying; don't go into automatic gear so that you become unstoppable. Be flexible.
Don't ramble. When your audience is aware you have no notes, they may worry where you're going with the subject matter and how long it will take you to get there. Also be on the lookout for vagueness and inaccuracy or the appearance thereof.
Have notes available, just in case. It never hurts to have notes on hand that you don't need to use.
3. Do What Works Best For You.
Remember:
Memorizing has potentially dangerous shortcomings (like going blank).
Speaking impromptu , off the cuff is risky, though spontaneous. Talent and experience help tremendously. Best done at informal occasions.
Reading a speech can be dull but, with practice, shouldn't be. This is clearly the safest method.
Small note cards printed with abbreviated notes, lead-in phrases, important words or statistics and other cues make one of the best all-around choices--if you practice.
Mapping the Content of Your Speech
1. The Visible Structure:
The audience should be aware of your speech structure. It's like knowing where you are on a road map--the audience will be happier if they know where you are in your speech at any given time, and where you're headed.
(A) Outline what will be told. Tell them what you're going to tell them.
(B) Let the audience know where you are going. "Next, I'll describe..." "Then, I'll show you..."
(C) Count: "There are three ways..." "I will tell you two stories that illustrate..." Keep track of those numbers!
(D) Refer back to what you said earlier. Tie loose ends together. Remind them.
(E) Use repetition. Begin similar points with the same words (but not excessively!).
(F) Use repetition. Refer to the same things and the same people in the same way each time. The audience cannot flip back a page to check a name.
(G) Assign responsibility. Don't be vague and say, "they believe..." or "they say..." unless you tell the audience who they are. If you are speaking of only your own beliefs, take responsibility and say, "I believe that..."
(H) Give credit for ideas and quotations you use. Speeches don't have footnotes.
(I) Create a motif, if you can ("I have a dream..."), but know when to do it. Don't create a motif if you--or the occasion--aren't up to it.
2. Putting One Foot Before the Other
Ask yourself these questions: Is your order logical? Are you following a route? Are you taking your audience down a road they can visualize?
(A) Does the evidence you give lead to the conclusion you intend to draw?
(B) Don't be preachy (unless you are truly preaching). Don't throw conclusions at the audience. Work up to conclusions with information.
(C) Present events chronologically (or in some other appropriate order).
(D) Do the events or data build to a climax?
3. Be Concrete. Be Metaphorical.
A few specifics are almost always better than many generalizations.
(A) Make analogies . Give examples.
(B) Tell a story that illustrates the point.
(C) Show spatial relationships . Visualize things. Use your hands!
(D) Give details. Only you have this information--what is it (your subject) really like?
(E) Don't hang an entire speech on the hook of a single metaphor (i.e. every aspect of a game of football represents a point you want to make, etc.)
4. In Conclusion...
(A) Check the time discreetly . Be prepared to wind up quickly, or compress final stories.
(B) Reiterate your major points . Did you tell them what you said you would?
(C) Don't fade away. The last sentence should be one of your strongest.
Writing Elements & Speaking ElementsIn a Written Piece
How is necessary information given in a written article? In a Speech
How do you give the same information when you're speaking out loud?
Title of book or article, author's name and (sometimes) author's position and background: Someone introduces the speaker, gives information about the speaker that is relevant to the occasion, plus the title or subject matter of the speech, etc.
Table of contents: Speaker tells the audience what s/he's going to talk about.
Charts, tables: Overheads, slides, the blackboard, a live demonstration, miming (describing something with gestures), etc.
Underlined words, words in boldface, exclamation points! Speaker writes word on blackboard, lingers on the word and/or repeats it; speaker uses appropriate hand gestures for emphasis.
Photographs: Speaker tells anecdotes or stories which illuminate important points.
Paragraphs: Speaker pauses for a few seconds between separate sections or ideas.
List of items in alphabetical, numerical, or bulleted order: Speaker counts off items in numerical order ("one... two..," etc.) to help audience keep track.
Chapter headings: Speaker says s/he is now going to talk about the following...
Quotation marks Speaker says "as X once said..." or uses the words "quote" and "unquote," (but does not make quote signs in the air with his/her fingers).
Footnotes: Speaker takes a brief moment to explain words, references, etc. which may not be understandable to everyone. This is equivalent to making a parenthetical remark.
Page numbers: Speaker lets the audience know where s/he is in the speech. For example: "First I'll describe X, and then I'll tell you about Y..."
Names, or other identification (reader can't turn back a page to check): Speaker calls people, places and things by the same name each time so that it is clear to what or whom s/he is referring. Speaker refers back: "X works in the same way as Y which I told you about earlier..."
Ending may be titled "Conclusions." Final sentence is a strong, summary, or even visionary statement: Speaker indicates by summarizing (saying "in conclusion..."), and by tone of voice that the speech is ending. Final sentence is a strong summary, or even visionary statement.
The Audience and You
1. Who Are They?
(A) What is the background (knowledge base) of the people you are going to be talking to? Adjust the level of your talk accordingly. Try to reach everyone.
(B) What mood are they likely to be in? What did they do before your talk? What are they going to be doing after? Is the atmosphere or setting formal or informal?
(C) Who are they? Both sexes, more than likely, probably religiously and ethnically diverse, etc. Therefore:
Don't exclude part of your audience by (for example) referring solely to "men" and telling stories using only the pronoun "he." On the other hand, don't pander to your audience by overdoing in the opposite direction.
Making a show of your thoughtfulness by switching genders in every remark you make can be annoying.
Don't assume your audience is tuned into or sympathetic with group "in-jokes."
(D) Be prepared to update your talk on the spot as the result of pre-speech encounters with members of the audience. Value these encounters and mingle, if you can, before you talk. You will have an opportunity to find out who they are, what they are interested in, and what they are hoping to hear or not hear. You may be able to add a comment like, "Someone told me this evening that..." to your talk.
(E) Questions: If you have the slightest hint that not everyone has heard the question being asked, repeat it before you proceed to answer it. It is frustrating to hear only answers.
(F) Handling disruption: It's probably best to acknowledge a disruption. But if you do, you will draw attention to it. So, if it's a minor disruption, it may be wiser to ignore it. Remember, at the podium, you are in charge, and your attitude will to a large extent determine the attitude of the audience.
2. Who Are You , Anyway?
(A) Why are you the one speaking on this subject? The person who introduced you may not have told this to the audience or covered all the right points. Fill them in. Make corrections.
(B) Be honest! Tell the audience how you feel. Make sure feelings and attitudes you discuss are ascribed to the right person or group. Remember the difference between "I believe" and "they believe."
If you don't know the answer to a question from the audience, admit it. Defer to an expert. Offer to look it up. If it involves a long (and possibly boring) answer, suggest the person talk with you afterwards.
(C) Make eye contact. but don't link eyes with one person. You will make him/her feel uncomfortable. See everyone; back, front, sides.
(D) If you make an error, ignore it and seamlessly move on. Or, acknowledge it briefly and then move on. Or, engage the sympathy of the audience by either confessing the error or making a small joke about it. (Warning: Jokes are high risk. What if no one laughs?)
(E) Look friendly. An audience is unlikely to warm to a speaker who seems unhappy at the prospect of talking to them. Match your demeanor to your topic, not to your anxieties.
Using Visuals
(A) You, the speaker, are a visual aid. You are "on stage" the moment you are introduced. You can't pretend you're not there while you set up your demonstration or check out the podium, etc. That's one reason it's best to have things set up--and checked out--in advance, especially when the set-up is complicated.
(B) Talk while you do stuff. If you must set up a visual aid while you are delivering your talk, plan to talk about it while you're doing this, especially if this is a lengthy process. You need to keep control of the audience; don't let them drift away.
(C) Keep demonstrations or materials simple . Don't get yourself caught up running a three-ring circus. There will be too much for you to do; too much can go wrong, and you may trip over all your electrical cords (especially if they were not taped to the floor).
(D) Keep the visuals simple. If you are showing something on a screen, one idea per slide or overhead is about right. Avoid complicated slides/overheads. Don't show pictures of things you do not intend to explain. Lead your audience through diagrams, even if you think they are simple.
(E) Avoid annoying the audience:
Don't read to them. If a slide has a great deal of writing on it, give them time to read it; they can read faster than you can speak.
Use a pointer when you can, not your hands. Stay away from a light beam pointer unless you can hold it steady (most people can't, especially when they're nervous).
If you are RIGHT-handed, stand on the RIGHT side of a visual display from the audience's perspective (If you're writing on the blackboard this will be your LEFT.) It will force you to keep your body somewhat turned toward the audience even while working on the blackboard; you can talk to the audience over you right shoulder if you talk while writing.
Look at the slides you are showing; make sure they are showing what you say they are showing.
If you use an overhead projector, practice laying transparencies right-side-up and turning the projector on/off. Keep your hands off transparencies while they are being displayed.
Be certain that equipment works; check it out in advance. Number slides, and make sure they are facing properly. You should have checked the room in advance.
Make sure everyone can see your demonstration or slides. And listen to your audience: if people indicate they cannot see, find a way they can.
(F) Heighten interest. If you have a number of objects to display, reveal them one at a time. Don't show your audience all your tricks before you begin. When you're finished with an object, put it away. Don't play with it.
(G) Chose the right time to give out handouts . Do you want people to look at them while you talk? Will the handouts heighten interest in your talk? Or diminish it?
(H) Practice your speech with all the visuals. Time them as they are integrated with your speech, and get comfortable with the way they fit in. Including visuals will magically lengthen the time it takes you to give your speech.
On the Day of Your Speech- Avoid Panic!
Check everything! Pretend to be confident!
1. Did you preview the site? Check room size, acoustics, lighting (and how to control it, if it's controllable), microphones, availability of a blackboard, chalk, electrical outlets, where people enter and exit, etc.
2. Do you know where your equipment is? Confirm your order for an overhead, etc. Plan where to locate your handouts. Consider whether you should have them available in advance or after your talk.
3. Establish where you will situate yourself with relation to your graphics and equipment. Will you block the view? How will you point things out? Where should your notes rest?
4. Don't eat heavily before your talk, and avoid milk products. The reasons for avoiding a heavy meal may be obvious. Milk products coat your larynx and may cause you to do a lot of throat-clearing.
5. Mingle with the audience before you speak, if you have the opportunity. You may learn some relevant things that you can incorporate into your talk. Or make a last minute adjustment to what you were going to say.
6. How are you being introduced? Did you tell the person who will introduce you what to say? And how to pronounce your name? Listen carefully to your introduction and take note so that when you speak, you don't repeat what was said. Make a mental note to add to it or make a minor correction if you think it's necessary.
7. Once you've been announced, you are on stage. From the moment you were introduced you have been the focus of the audience's attention. It has no one else to look at but you. Move confidently.
8. When you're ready to begin- don't. Wait! Take a moment to catch your breath. (Remember- abdominal breathing!) Make a pleasant face at the audience. Take a comfortable stance. Breathe. Look at everyone before you start.
9. Keep an eye on your equipment as you move around or move things around. Avoid lengthy silences while you adjust equipment or arrange visuals or write on the blackboard. Talk and do. Watch where you're walking. Don't get tangled up in electrical cords. Keep your overheads in order as you use them. Don't get too close to the microphone.
10. Questions: the inaudible, the complex, the unanswerable, and the hostile. Repeat questions to the rest of the audience. Feel free to comment, e.g., "That's a good question!" Break complicated ones into simple components; tell the person asking a question you can't answer that you'll get back to him/her later or that you don't know. Don't respond to hostile questions by repeating the accusation; answer positively.
11. Head up when you're done! End naturally, without a "thank you." Look at the audience and acknowledge to them that you are done. Save your "thank you" for the roar of applause. Smile. Leave the podium as slowly as you walked to it. Don't look as if you're escaping. Head up all the way back to your seat!
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